Gangaikonda Cholapuram – City & Fortifications

Gangaikonda Cholapuram – City & Fortifications

History of the City

The city was founded by Rajendra Chola to commemorate his victory over the Pala Dynasty. The name means the town of the chola who brought Ganga (water from Ganga) or who defeated (the kings near) Ganga. It is now a small village, its past eminence only remembered by the existence of the great Siva Temple.

Rajendra Chola-I (1012-1044 A.D) son of the Great Rajaraja-I, established this temple after his great victorious march to river Ganges on Northern India. He assumed the title of Rajendra during his coronation and continued to rule along with his father Rajaraja-I for a while. He was awarded the supreme title of the Cholas known as Parakesari.

Rajendra-I, a great warrior, assisted his father in numerous expeditions to elevate the Cholas to supreme power. The various expeditions he conducted were: Gangetic expedition, eastern/Western Chalukyas expedition, war against Cheras/Pandyas, Ceylon expedition, Kadaram (currently called as Kedah) expedition.

His empire included the whole of southern India to the river Thungabhadra in the north. For administrative and strategic purposes he built another capital and named it Gangaikondacholapuram. The Gangaikondacholapuram temple he constructed consists of 3 stories and was surrounded by a huge fort-like wall, the outer wall largely destroyed during the English rule (1896) to reuse the building material (granite rocks) for constructing the Lower Anicut the dam built across river Kollidam. He built around 10 temples at various places.

He assumed the title of Gangaikonda Cholan and named his new capital as Gangaikondacholapuram and he also constructed a huge Lake known as Chola Gangam that spreads 22 km mainly used for drinking and irrigation. A statue of Rajendra-I is found in Kolaram temple at Kolar of Karnataka state in India.

C. 1022 C.E. Rajendra undertook an expedition to the Ganges along the east coast of peninsular India. The emperor himself led the army up to the banks of the Godavari River. The Chola armies conquered all the countries north of Vengi, which included Kalinga, Odda, Southern Kosala, the lower and upper Lada and finally the Vangaladesa (Bengal). The triumphant Chola armies brought back waters from the river Ganges in golden vessels.

Around the same time, the Cholas under the illustrious Rajendra Chola I also vanquished the Chalukyas of Manyakheta when the Chola protectorate of Vengi was threatened by Chalukyas Jayasimha II. Rajendra Chola I defeated Jayasimha - II Chalukya at Maski (Muyangi in Chola annals) between Eluru and Visayavadi (modern Vijayawada) and subsequently engaged the Chalukya in Kannada country itself i.e. in the Chalukyas capital of Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta) "the war in which the Chalukya Jayasimha-II, full of fear, hid like a mouse and fled the battlefield".

The Chola armies seized the Chalukya flag, decapitated or slew various generals of the Chalukyas, with the Chalukyan king fleeing the battlefield. The Chalukya King surrendered his wife to the victorious Chola monarch. With the Chola coffers filling up with riches from the Chalukya country, they were able to establish their hold of the region between the Vaigai/Kaveri deltas in Tamil country up to the Tungabhadra-Krishna basins in the Maharashtra-Andhra region. To commemorate this celebrated victory,

Rajendra assumed the title of "Irattapadi-konda Cholan", "Mannai-kondan" (the king who possessed Irattapadi (erstwhile land of the Rashtrakutas usurped by the Salukkis (Chalukyas) and the king who possessed (the Chalukyan capital) Manyakheta (Mannaikadakkam in Chola annals) and had the Siva Temple Gangaikondacholeswaram built). Soon the capital was moved from Thanjavur to Gangaikondacholapuram. The city of Gangaikondacholapuram was probably founded by Rajendra before his 17th year. Most of the Chola kings who succeeded Rajendra were crowned here. They retained it as their capital, reoriented and trained the efficient Chola army.

Fortifications

Judging from the available literature and the remains we may conclude that it was an extensive city, carefully planned and laid in accordance with the architectural treatises to suit the needs of a capital.

The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification can be seen as a mound running all around the palace.

The outer fortification built of burnt bricks, was about six to eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space (the core) being filled with sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are made of well-burnt clay. Systematic brick robbing by the local inhabitants has reduced this structure to its current state.

The outer fortification was known as Rajendra Chola Madil and is mentioned in inscriptions. The inner fortification was around the royal palace, probably identical with the Utpadi vittu madil of the inscriptions.

Probably in the reign of Kulothunga Chola I, the fortifications were renewed and the city underwent some alteration and additions. An epigraph refers to the fort wall of Kulothunga Chola (Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil). The strengthening of the fortification and additions to the city in the reign of Kulothunga I were probably necessitated by the uprising which led to the murder of Chola king Athithakarikal Chola in the sambuvaraya's palace of Melakadambur, Kulothunga's predecessor. By the 13th century, the Chola kingdom had exhausted its resources and was on the decline. It succumbed to an attack by the Hoysalas from the west and the Pandyas from the south. The last king of the Medieval Cholas was Rajendra Chola-III.

Catastrophe on Gangaikondacholapuram

As per the available evidences, the last Chola King Rajendra Chozha III’s rule did not end due to any defeat in the war field. But devastations are available underneath, which proves that some major catastrophe happened around Gangaikondacholapuram which brought the Chola’s Rule to an end. After about six/eight decades, the Chola region was taken over by Pallava from whom it was Hoysala and then to Vijaya Nagar Rule.

During Vijaya Nagar Rule, lots of settlements were made by Telugus, Telugu Brahmins, and Kannada etc. happened. It is also evident that while the farmers tried to dig wells for farming around Gangaikondacholapuram, it was revealed to the world that the Palace buildings and other constructions are underneath about 50 – 80 feet depth.

Roads and City gates

Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs. The entryways named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the Vembugudi gate, evidently the south gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that directions are mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali.

Other streets mentioned in epigraphs are the ten streets (Pattu teru), the gateway lane (Thiruvasal Narasam) and the Suddhamali lane. The inscription also refers to the highways, Kulottungacholan Thirumadil peruvali, Vilangudaiyan Peruvali and Kulaiyanai pona Peruvali (the highway through which a short elephant passed by).

City layout

The epigraphs also refer to the Madhurantaka Vadavaru, now called the Vadavaru, running about six kilometers east of the ruined capital. Madhurantaka Vedavaru, named after one of the titles of Rajendra I, was a source of irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the capital. An irrigation channel called Anaivettuvan is also mentioned.

"Anaivettuvan" - Anai means irrigation (step irrigation) vettuvan means labour or engineer. Hence the above sequel is not matching; more over Hindu Dharam never allows killing elephant. Another possible meaning of "Anaivettuvan" - Anai means Dam, vettuvan means constructor (labour or engineer).

There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used for cultivation and other purposes. The present positions of the existing temples throw some light on the layout of the city. With the palace as the centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to have been erected. Towards the northeast (Isanya) of the palace is the great temple of Siva. The Siva temple according to Vastu and traditional texts should be in the northeast of the city or village and should face east. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west.

A number of small tanks and ponds mentioned in inscriptions and a number of wells supplied drinking water to the residents.

Temple & the City

Gangaikonda Cholapuram, now in the Udayarpalayam taluk of Ariyalur District, in Tamilnadu, was erected as the capital of the Cholas by Rajendra I, the son and successor of Rajaraja I, the great Chola who conquered a large area in South India at the beginning of the 11th century A.D. It occupies an important place in the history of India.

As the capital of the Cholas from about 1025 A.D. for about 250 years, the city controlled the affairs of entire south India, from the Tungabhadra in the north to Ceylon in the south. The great temple of Siva at this place is next only to the great temple of Tanjore in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality. The city was founded by the eminent Chola emperor probably to commemorate his victorious march to the Ganges and reflected his personality throughout the days of its eminence and continues to do so because of its great temple, though its role as a capital of the south has been forgotten by its inhabitants. It is now a small village, bounded in the west by the celebrated Gangaikondan Lake, one of the biggest lakes in south India, and by the river Vadavaru in the east.

To the south and the north are fields with a few hamlets bearing names recalling their associations with the greatness of the city. A highway winding its way through this once great city runs north-south leading to the Lower Anicut, while another road cuts across the great lake east-west and connects this village with Jayamkonda chola Puram, another Chola foundation about six miles to the west. The lofty tower of the great prasada could be seen from about a distance of six or seven miles. Besides the great temple and other ancient relics, inscriptions on the temple are our primary source of information for reconstructing the history of the city.

Copper plate charters issued by Rajendra and his successors also give valuable information. A few Tamil literary works like the Thiruvisaippa of Karuvurdevar, the Kalingattup-parani of Jayamkondar, the Muvar Ula of Ottakkuttar, and the Koyil Olugu furnish some data. The Sanskrit work, the Vikramankadeva Charita of Bilhana on the exploits of Vikramaditya VI, also throws some light. Records dealing with the Udaiyarpalaiyam Zamin give some valuable information about the temple and the city.

City then & now

There is an interesting reference in the Silappadikaram, a post Sangam classic, to the foundation of Uraiyur as a capital of the Cholas of the Sangam age. A cock is said to have attacked and chased away an elephant at Uraiyur. This inspired the Chola king to make Uraiyur his Metropolis, for he believed that the inhabitants of that place would be heroic and valorous as the cock. A similar story of a rabbit chasing away a hound is told of the foundation of Panchalankuruchi, the capital of Virapandya Kattabomman. Who defied the British in late 18th century A.D.

If these traditions are of any value, they indicate that a place which inspired a ruler to attain phenomenal success was honoured by being made capital of the ruler, who cherished sentimental attachment to it. Only thus can we explain for the foundation of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the capital of the imperial Cholas from the eleventh century.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram was unheard of even as a village when Rajendra I came to the Chola throne. Thanjavur had been the chola capital ever since it had been captured from the Muttarakiya Chieftains by Vijayalaya, who founded the imperial line of the Chola in the middle of ninth century A. D.

Thanjavur served the interests of the Cholas well. It was well fortified and adorned with palaces mansions; it was there that Rajaraja I had built the great temple; it was from there that he had brought for the first time the entire southern India under one parasol. Yet within few years of the erection of the great temple and within few years of his passing, his son, Rajendra shifted his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Was this because Gangaikonda Cholapuram served strategic purpose better than Thanjavur (but Thanjavur had better claims with its fortifications and natural river barriers)? No answer is possible except for a suggestion that it was probably here that Rajendra resolved to dispatch a military expedition to the Gangetic plain.

The city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram was probably founded by Rajendra before his 17th regnal years as it is mentioned in one of his inscriptions of that year. Judging from the available literature and the remains we may conclude that it was an extensive city, carefully planned and laid in accordance with the architectural treatises to suit the needs of a capital, rajadhani. The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The villagers point to a mound running all around the palace as the outer fortification.

Systematic brick robbing has been going on in this place. It is probable that the outer fortification built of burnt bricks, was about six to eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space (the core) being filled with sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are made of well burnt clay. A fortification at this place called Rajendra Chola Madil (the fort wall named Rajendra Chola) evidently after the builder is mentioned in an inscription. This fortification might be identical with this outer wall. The inner fortification was around the royal palace, probably identical with the Utpadi vittu madil of the inscriptions.

The royal palace also was built of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with flat tiles of small size, laid in a number of courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood, supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day. Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site.

In the reign of Virarajendra, Rajendra's third son, the palace at Gangaikonda Cholapuram is referred to as Chola-Keralan Thirumaligai (Chola Keralan palace) evidently after one of the titles of Rajendra I. The same inscription mentions a few parts of the palace as adibhumi (the ground floor), Kilaisopana (the eastern portico), and a seat named Mavali Vanadhirajan. Evidently the palace was multistoried. In an inscription dated in the 49th year of Kulottunga (1119 A.D.) reference is made to Gangaikonda chola Mallikai at this place. It is likely that there were more than one royal building each having its own name.

Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs. The entry ways named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the Vembugudi gate, evidently the south gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that directions are mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali. Other streets mentioned in epigraphs are the ten streets (Pattu teru), the gateway lane (Thiruvasal Narasam) and the Suddhamali lane.

Probably in the reign of Kulottunga, the fortifications were renewed and the city underwent some alteration and additions. An epigraph refers to the fort wall of Kulottunga Chola (Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil). The inscription also refers to the highways, Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil peruvali, Vilangudaiyan Peruvali and Kulaiyanai pona Peruvali (the highway through which a short elephant passed by). The strengthening of the fortification and additions to the city in the reign of Kulottunga I were probably necessitated by the uprising which led to the murder of Chola king Adhirajendra, Kulottunga's predecessor.

The epigraphs also refer to the Madhurantaka Vadavaru, now called the Vadavaru, running about three miles east of the ruined capital. Madhurantaka Vedavaru evidently named after one of the titles of Rajendra I, was a source of irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the capital. An irrigation channel called Anaivettuvan (destroyer of elephants) Kal is also mentioned.

There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used for cultivation and other purposes. The present positions of the existing temples throw some light on the layout of the city. With the palace as the centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to have been erected. Towards the north-east (Isanya) of the palace is the great temple of Siva. The Siva temple according to Vastu and Agamic texts should be in the north-east of the city or village and should face east. Till recent times, the local people say an image of Vishnu with his consorts was in situ to the west of the palace. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west. To the south-east of the palace is a temple dedicated to Aiyanar (Sastra). Obviously there should have existed other temples as prescribed in traditional treatises.

A few villages lying mostly to the east of the temple bear names that recall their association with the original layout of the city. Thus Vira Cholapuram, Kollapuram, Meykavalputhur, Vanavanallur, Virabhogha etc., are of interest.

A number of small tanks and ponds mentioned in inscriptions and retained in tradition, supplied drinking water to the residents, besides a number of wells. Most of the Chola kings who succeeded Rajendra were crowned here. They retained it as their capital, reoriented and trained the efficient Chola army. This capital of the most powerful empire in Asia at one time is now absolutely desolate only the temple of Gangaikonda chola survives. To those who know of the brilliant history of the Chola Empire it is a tragedy.

What caused the destruction of this city? The Pandyas, who put an end to the Chola Empire late in the 13th century, avenging their earlier defeats at the hands of the Cholas, should have razed the city to the ground, a misfortune that befell on capitals in early times. It should have remained a heap of brick debris, the inhabitants of the nearby villages pilfering the bricks for their constructions. The people have also dug systematically deep into the ground and extracted cartloads of ancient bricks, at four annas per cartload. The residents boast that within a radius of five miles, no brick kiln is needed.