Arivar Koil (Jaina Cave Temple), Sittannavasal
The Arivar Koil, a Jaina cave temple, with its mural
paintings belonging to the 9th century AD, is one of the best-known monuments
in the district. There is still some uncertainty regarding the origin of this temple.
The temple in its architectural style resembles the cave temples built by the
Pallava† king, Mahendravarman (600 – 630 AD). It is claimed that Mahendravarman’s
territory did not extend beyond.
Tiruchi, and Lalitankura Pallavesvara griha on the Rock
Fort in Tiruchi is the southernmost temple he had excavated. It is also known that
there are cave temples of this period and of similar style in the Pandya
country where the Pallava power was unknown. One such cave temple, dedicated to
Siva, with relics of paintings, perhaps belonging to the same period as that of
Sittannavasal, is at Tirumalaipuram, near Tirunelveli.
In the absence of any foundation inscription it would
not be possible to ascertain the builder of this temple. From an inscription
dated 9th century, which refers to repair and extension on the temple, one can
surmise that this cave temple is anterior to this date.
Sittannavasal Paintings
This Jaina cave temple is world famous primarily for its
mural paintings. The ceiling of the sanctum and ardhamandapam of this cave
temple contain beautiful paintings. These paintings are of the classical or
Ajanta style with variations in the handling of the materials by the artists.
They furnish a connected link between the Ajanta paintings (4th – 6th century
AD) and the Chozha paintings of 11th century at Thanjavur. The
sculpture and the matchless paintings of the cave are worth studying in detail.
Originally the entire cave temple, including the
sculptures was covered with plaster and painted. The paintings are now found on
the ceiling, top part of the pillars and the beam above the pillars. All these paintings,
which would rank among the great paintings of India, are barely visible now,
mainly due to vandalism within the last 50-60 years.
These paintings include, as its subject matter, the
Jaina Samavasarana, and in it the k h a t i k a - b h u m i including a lotus
tank, flowers, animals, bhavyas and dancing Apsaras, a royal couple and hamsas.
The Samava Sarana in Jaina Tradition
Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the
world. The ultimate goal of every Jain is the attainment of nirvana† or
liberation of soul from the bondage of karmas. Even though there is no emphasis
on worship of Gods in Jainism, it teaches the worship of all liberated souls,
which have advanced in their spiritual journey irrespective of the level of
their achievement. So the worship of the great souls or heroes occupies an important
place in the life of Jains.
According to the Jaina tradition there are 63 Salakapurushas
(‘Great Souls’). It includes 24 Thirthankaras, 12 emperors (Chakravarti) and 27
other heroes. Of these the Thirthankaras occupy the most prominent place and
are venerated as Devadi Devas (‘God of Gods’). They are in a sense the religious
prophets of the Jains.
A soul attains the position of a Thirthankara after
doing good actions. Every Thirthankara, before getting his enlightenment had to
go through numerous births in different forms. Five important events in the
life of a Thirthankara are important, and are depicted in the temples and
narrated in Puranam works. They are the birth, the renunciation, the realization
(attaining Kevala Gnana), the first sermon and nirvana (liberation of soul).
The Tirthankara after obtaining Kevala Gnana delivers a
sermon in a specially designed audience hall called Samava Sarana. Gods and
goddesses, human beings, birds and beasts come to witness the grand scene of
the Lord’s discourse. The parallel in Saivism to this hall is called as devasiriya
mandapam as can be seen in the Thiruvarur temple.
Samavasarana, the most attractive heavenly pavilion, is
a favourite motif for representation in the Jaina temples. Bhavyas are those
fortunate people who become entitled to attend the divine discourse in the Samavasarana
structure. They have to pass through seven bhumis or regions before they occupy
their seat to hear the divine discourse.
Among these, the second bhumi is called the khatika bhumi
(region of the tank). It is a delightful tank with fishes, birds, animals and
men frolicking in it or playing in it. The bhavyas are said to get down into
the tank, wash their feet and please themselves by gathering lotus flowers,
while animals such as elephants, buffaloes and birds and fishes are frolicking
about and pleasing themselves too as best as they can. This tank is the one
painted on the ceilings of the cave temple.
The Discovery
This Jaina site and its paintings were first noticed by S.
Radhakrishna Iyer, a local historian, and were recorded in his book ‘General
History of the Pudukkottai State’ (1916). The impact of Radhakrishna Iyer’s
reference to the Sittannavasal cave temple and its murals was, however,
inhibited by the comparatively regional character of his book and its
readership. He himself was not likely to have realized the full importance of
Sittannavasal while describing it. The publication in 1920 of Jouveau Dubreuil’s
monograph on Sittannavasal was, as a result, accorded the status of a
‘discovery’.
While Iyer’s notice predates the Dubreuil’s, it is the
latter that received attention beyond the educated and ruling circles of the
erstwhile State. To Dubreuil and the renowned iconographer Gopinatha Rao who collaborated
with him in Sittannavasal during the years 1918 to 1920 must be given the credit
of placing Sittannavasal before the archaeological world.
In 1942, Dr. S. Paramasivan and K. R. Srinivasan were engaged
in cleaning the paintings. They noticed a patch of old painting representing
conventional carpet design, over which a new layer of painting was
superimposed. This superimposed layer was probably the work of Ilan Gautaman,
mentioned in the inscription. The new layer spread into the garbha griham and
all over the ceiling of the ardha mandapam, the pillars, the corbels and the
beams. This new layer is laid over a ground of plaster over which the paintings
that we see today and admire are put up.
The Painting Tradition
The Sittannavasal paintings carry on the tradition of
the well known Ajanta frescoes (2nd century BC-6th century AD), Srilanka’s
Sigiriya (Srigiri) frescoes of the fifth century AD and the Bagh frescoes in
Madhya Pradesh of the sixth and seventh centuries AD. Sittannavasal is,
therefore, an early example of the post Ajanta period, and in merit it compares
well with Ajanta and Sigiriya. We may safely say that Sittannavasal is one
among the earliest frescoes so far known in South India, and that they are the
only example of early Jaina frescoes.
The technique employed is what is known as fresco secco,
that is, the painting is done on a dry wall. (In the Europe mural paintings are
done on a moist wall and are called fresco bueno). In this process the surface
to be painted is first covered with lime plaster, and then coated with lime wash
and the painting done on it.
According to Dr. S. Paramasivan, who had made thorough analysis
of the techniques of Sittannavasal paintings, the following pigments have been
employed: lime for white, lamp black for black, ochres for yellow and red,
terre verte for green, etc. Thus mineral colours, which are of a permanent
nature, have been employed. But the information-board put up by the ASI states
that vegetable dyes have been employed for the paintings.
In 1937-39, Maharaja of Pudukkottai had the paintings cleaned.
After cleaning the paintings, they applied a preservative coating, and
strengthened the painted plaster wherever it was loose, by injecting suitable
cementing material without retouching any part of the paintings.
The Cave Temple – General Description
The cave temple lies on the west face of the hillock. It
stands beneath an enormous scarp, which seems likely to fall down upon it. There
is an air of somber forlornness about it, altogether appropriate for the severe
religion of ultimate mortification of which it has been a centre from ancient
times.
From the road, a walk of about hundred feet over the sloping
rock takes the visitor to the cave temple. The plan and construction of the
temple is simple. It resembles other rock cut cave temples of 7th century
in plan and style. Originally it consisted of only a garbha griham and an ardha
mandapam in front, facing west. Both of them are excavated from living rock.
According to an inscription dated 9th century, a mukha mandapam was
added during the Pandya time. But it must have collapsed, due to neglect. Presently,
there is a pillared veranda in front of the cave. This structure is added much
latter, in 20th century.
The Pillared veranda
Visitors enter the cave temple through a pillared
veranda. This is the latter addition by the Maharaja of Pudukkottai at the
instance of Tottenham, the British administrator, in the 20th century. The
pillars were brought from the ruins of the Kudumiyamalai temple and the roof slabs
from the quarry of adjoining place called Panangudi. The moulded plinth here is
original Pandya. It may be surmised that the mukha mandapam built by the Pandya
king must have collapsed. Some point out the debris lying about to prove this. This
veranda is bereft of any detail, except for a famous inscription.
This 17 line Tamil inscription on the surface of the
rock on the southern flank of this pillared veranda is of great importance giving
us some clue to the dating the cave temple. It says that a Jaina acharya named
Ilan Gautaman, also called ‘the acharya from Madurai’, repaired or renovated
and embellished the ardhamandapam and added a mukha mandapam in front of the
cave temple, which is called in the inscription ‘Arivar koil’ (‘temple of the
Arhat’) in Annalvayil village during the reign of the Pandya King Srimaran srivallabhan
(815-862 AD), also called Avanipasekhara.
The Artha Mandapam
Crossing the front veranda one enters the rectangular
ardhamandapam. It measures 22 ½ feet long, 7 ½ feet wide and 8 ½ feet high. It
is slightly taller than the garbha griham. The façade of this ardhamandapam consists
of two massive pillars in the middle and two pilasters, one at either end. The pillars
are squarish at the two ends and octagonal in the middle. The pilasters are
also of the same design.
The rock above the pillars and pilasters is carved in
the form of a massive beam. All these pillars and pilasters carry large corbels
(potikai) with horizontal roll ornamentation or flutings, with a plain band in
the centre. On either side of the doorway to the garbha-griham are ornamented
pilasters enclosing two niches, one on either side. These pilasters are smaller
but of the same type as the pillars. They have, on the upper cubical parts,
lotus medallions carved in bold relief.
On the northern and southern walls of the ardha mandapam
are niches. In the northern niche is a figure of a Jaina acharya seated in the
dhyana (meditative) pose, cross legged, with the hands placed one over the
other, palms upwards, resting on the folded legs.
There is a single umbrella over the head of the image,
which proves that it is not that of a Tirthankara. On the southern wall, placed
in a similar niche, is the figure of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third
Tirthankara. He is also seated in the same posture, but with a five headed serpent
spreading its hood over his head instead of an umbrella.
There is an inscription at the bottom (east face) of the
pillar near northern figure. It contains the word ‘thiruvasiriyan’, denoting that
the figure represented is an ‘asiriya’ that is acharya.
It is on the ceiling, the walls, the beams, the cornice
and the pillars of this ardha mandapam that the best known of the Sittannavasal
paintings are found. Those on the walls have completely perished and parts of
those on the ceilings, the beams and the upper parts of the pillars alone survive.
The paintings on the ceiling Canopies of different
floral patterns are painted on the ceiling over the two images in the ardha mandapam.
That over Parsvanatha has both natural and conventional lotus flowers, the
former in full blossom against a lotus leaf background. That over the acharya
has only a conventional lotus pattern.
In the centre up to the borders of the carpet canopy is
painted an exquisite composition, ‘The Samava Sarana’, a lotus tank with the Bhavyas
collecting flowers and animals and fish frolicking. The scenes of this
composition are from the Samava Sarana, one of the delightful heavens of the
Jains, explained before. The painting shows bhavyas diverting themselves in a
pool, full of flowering lotuses, called khatika bhumi. The flowers with their
stalks and leaves, and the birds, fishes, makaras, bulls and elephants are shown
with a perfect simplicity, charm and naturalness.
The pose and expression of the bhavyas shown in the
picture have a charm and beauty, which compel attention. Two of them are shown
together in one part of the tank. One is picking lotus flowers with his right
hand and has a basket of flowers slung on the other. He is represented in a
deep red colour. His companion carries a lotus in one hand; the other hand is
bent gracefully, the fingers forming the mrigimudra (‘deer gesture’). His
colour is orange, showing the merit of the soul. The third bhavya, an extremely
beautiful figure, also orange in colour, is apart from the others. He carries a
bunch of lotus over his left shoulder and lily over his right. The three
figures are naked except for their loincloths. The hair is neatly arranged and
the lobes of the ears are pendant.
Paintings on the pillars
The painting on the pillars also have been ruined to a
large extant and only the outlines of three figures are traceable today, that too
only on the upper part of the pillars. There are portraits of dancing girls on
both the pillars. These two animated figures, with their broad hips, slender
waists, and elaborate ornaments, recall the beauty of the apsaras of mythology;
their pose and expression suggest rhythm and dynamic movement.
These portraitures of dancers in Sittannavasal must rank
as one among the best in the whole of India. There is also remnant of a painting
of a couple on one of the pillars. On the front face of the southern pillar is
a beautiful picture of a dancer, her left arm stretched out in lata hasta pose,
gracefully. She has her right arm bent at the elbow, in front of her bosom with
its palm presenting pataaka. Her ears are adorned with patra kundala (known as
olai in Tamil), rings set with gems, and her arms decked with bracelets and
bangles.
Even more graceful is the other dancer on the front face
of the northern pillar. She has her left arm starched in lata hasta pose, while
her right arm is bent at the elbow, in front of her bosom with its palm
presenting pataaka. The headdress and the ornaments of this dancer are very
distinct. The hair is decked with flower garlands.
The painting on the other face of the southern pillar represents
a man and a woman, possibly the builder, and his queen. The man has an
elaborate kiridam (diadem on the head), a patra kundala (rings set with gems)
in the ear. There is also an umbrella raised over both. His demeanor and his
diadem indicate his royal status. In front of these two is another figure in red,
unfortunately much defaced and beyond recognition.
Paintings on the cornice and beam
There are also paintings on the corbels, beam and
cornice. On the corbel are scroll designs with lotuses. The painting on the cornice,
which projects in front of the mandapam†, is made up of carpet designs with
lotuses. The surface of the cornice in front of each of the two pillars bears a
hamsa (mythical swan). On the northern wall, below the cornice on a patch of plaster,
are the figures of a trident, fruits and flowers in yellow and red.
The Garbha Griham
From the ardhamandapam, a door way, 5 ½ feet by 2 ½
feet, approached by a flight of steps flanked by surul vyalis (balustrades
sculptured in the form of vyalis with curled trunks) leads to the garbha griham.
The garbha griham is a square of 10 feet and 7 ½ feet high.
On the back wall of the garbha griham are three images carved in relief in a
row. All of them are in the same dhyana (meditative) posture. The northern and
central figures have ‘mukkudai’ (‘triple-umbrella’), indicating them to be
Thirthankaras, while the southern has a single umbrella, and probably
represents a Chakravarti or an acharya. On the ceiling of the garbha griham is
carved a wheel with hub and axle representing the Dharma chakra (‘Wheel of the Law’).
The ceiling of the garbha griham is also painted. The
painting above the three images in the inner shrine is intended to serve as a canopy.
The design suggests a carpet, with striped borders and irregular squares and circles
interlinked. Within the squares are conventional lotus flowers, and inside the
circles are crosses with bulbous ends.
On the upper sides of the horizontal arm of the cross
are human figures and on the lower sides lions. In the rest of the area of the
ceiling is the lotus pond Samava Sarana, similar to that in the ardhamandapam, is
painted. This completes this visit to the cave temple.
Tamil Inscriptions near the Cave Temple
According to T. N. Ramachandran, there are four
different inscriptions in Tamil characters of the 13th century AD, on the
living rock to the south of the cave temple.
It is reported by Dr. A. Ekambaranathan and Dr. C. K. Sivaprakasam
in their book ‘Jaina Inscriptions in Tamilnadu’ (1987) that there are 7
different inscriptions in Tamil characters of 7th – 10th centuries
on the rock surface to the south of the cave temple.
But now we could trace only two. All these inscriptions
are unfortunately fragmentary, but appear to refer to works executed in regard
to this cave temple.
From these it can be surmised that the Pudukkottai
tract, in which Sittannavasal and adjoining Narttamalai fall, constituted a land
where Jainism flourished for over 1000 years from the 1st century BC
onwards.