Gangaikonda Cholapuram – City & Fortifications
History of the City
The city was founded by Rajendra Chola to commemorate
his victory over the Pala
Dynasty. The name means the
town of the chola who brought Ganga (water from Ganga) or who defeated (the
kings near) Ganga. It is now a small village, its past eminence only remembered
by the existence of the great Siva Temple.
Rajendra Chola-I (1012-1044 A.D) son of the Great Rajaraja-I,
established this temple after his great victorious march to river Ganges on
Northern India. He assumed the title of Rajendra during his coronation and
continued to rule along with his father Rajaraja-I for a while. He was awarded
the supreme title of the Cholas known as Parakesari.
Rajendra-I, a great warrior, assisted his father in
numerous expeditions to elevate the Cholas to supreme power. The various
expeditions he conducted were: Gangetic expedition, eastern/Western
Chalukyas expedition, war against Cheras/Pandyas, Ceylon
expedition, Kadaram (currently called as Kedah) expedition.
His empire included the whole of southern India to the
river Thungabhadra in the north. For administrative and strategic purposes he
built another capital and named it Gangaikondacholapuram. The
Gangaikondacholapuram temple he constructed consists of 3 stories and was
surrounded by a huge fort-like wall, the outer wall largely destroyed during
the English rule (1896) to reuse the building material (granite rocks) for
constructing the Lower Anicut the dam built across river Kollidam. He built
around 10 temples at various places.
He assumed the title of Gangaikonda Cholan and named his
new capital as Gangaikondacholapuram and he also constructed a huge Lake known
as Chola Gangam that spreads 22 km mainly used for drinking and
irrigation. A statue of Rajendra-I is found in Kolaram temple at Kolar of
Karnataka state in India.
C. 1022 C.E. Rajendra undertook an expedition to the
Ganges along the east coast of peninsular India. The emperor himself led the
army up to the banks of the Godavari River. The Chola armies conquered all the
countries north of Vengi, which included Kalinga, Odda, Southern Kosala, the lower and upper Lada and
finally the Vangaladesa (Bengal). The triumphant Chola armies brought back waters from
the river Ganges in golden vessels.
Around the same time, the Cholas under the
illustrious Rajendra Chola I also vanquished the Chalukyas of Manyakheta when the Chola protectorate of Vengi was
threatened by Chalukyas Jayasimha
II. Rajendra Chola I defeated Jayasimha - II Chalukya at
Maski (Muyangi in Chola annals) between Eluru and Visayavadi (modern
Vijayawada) and subsequently engaged the Chalukya in Kannada country itself
i.e. in the Chalukyas capital of Mannaikadakkam (Manyakheta) "the war in
which the Chalukya Jayasimha-II, full of fear, hid like a mouse and fled the
battlefield".
The Chola armies seized the Chalukya flag, decapitated
or slew various generals of the Chalukyas, with the Chalukyan king fleeing the
battlefield. The Chalukya King surrendered his wife to the victorious Chola
monarch. With the Chola coffers filling up with riches from the Chalukya
country, they were able to establish their hold of the region between the
Vaigai/Kaveri deltas in Tamil country up to the Tungabhadra-Krishna basins in the Maharashtra-Andhra region. To
commemorate this celebrated victory,
Rajendra assumed the title of "Irattapadi-konda
Cholan", "Mannai-kondan" (the king who possessed Irattapadi
(erstwhile land of the Rashtrakutas usurped by the Salukkis (Chalukyas) and
the king who possessed (the Chalukyan capital) Manyakheta (Mannaikadakkam in
Chola annals) and had the Siva Temple Gangaikondacholeswaram built). Soon the
capital was moved from Thanjavur to Gangaikondacholapuram. The city of
Gangaikondacholapuram was probably founded by Rajendra before his 17th year.
Most of the Chola kings who succeeded Rajendra were crowned here. They retained
it as their capital, reoriented and trained the efficient Chola army.
Fortifications
Judging from the available literature and the remains we
may conclude that it was an extensive city, carefully planned and laid in
accordance with the architectural treatises to suit the needs of a capital.
The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner
and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification
can be seen as a mound running all around the palace.
The outer fortification built of burnt bricks, was about
six to eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space (the
core) being filled with sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are made
of well-burnt clay. Systematic brick robbing by the local inhabitants has
reduced this structure to its current state.
The outer fortification was known as Rajendra Chola
Madil and is mentioned in inscriptions. The inner fortification was around
the royal palace, probably identical with the Utpadi vittu madil of the
inscriptions.
Probably in the reign of Kulothunga Chola I, the fortifications were renewed and the city underwent
some alteration and additions. An epigraph refers to the fort wall of
Kulothunga Chola (Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil). The strengthening of the
fortification and additions to the city in the reign of Kulothunga I were probably
necessitated by the uprising which led to the murder of Chola king Athithakarikal Chola in the sambuvaraya's palace of Melakadambur, Kulothunga's predecessor. By the 13th century, the
Chola kingdom had exhausted its resources and was on the decline. It succumbed
to an attack by the Hoysalas from the west and the Pandyas from the south. The
last king of the Medieval Cholas was Rajendra Chola-III.
Catastrophe on
Gangaikondacholapuram
As per the available evidences, the last Chola King
Rajendra Chozha III’s rule did not end due to any defeat in the war field. But
devastations are available underneath, which proves that some major catastrophe
happened around Gangaikondacholapuram which brought the Chola’s Rule to an end.
After about six/eight decades, the Chola region was taken over by Pallava from
whom it was Hoysala and then to Vijaya Nagar Rule.
During Vijaya Nagar Rule, lots of settlements were made by
Telugus, Telugu Brahmins, and Kannada etc. happened. It is also evident that
while the farmers tried to dig wells for farming around Gangaikondacholapuram,
it was revealed to the world that the Palace buildings and other constructions
are underneath about 50 – 80 feet depth.
Roads and City gates
Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the
names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs. The entryways
named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the Vembugudi gate, evidently the south
gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that directions are
mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and
Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali.
Other streets mentioned in epigraphs are the ten streets
(Pattu teru), the gateway lane (Thiruvasal Narasam) and the Suddhamali
lane. The inscription also refers to the highways, Kulottungacholan Thirumadil
peruvali, Vilangudaiyan Peruvali and Kulaiyanai pona
Peruvali (the highway through which a short elephant passed by).
City layout
The epigraphs also refer to the Madhurantaka Vadavaru,
now called the Vadavaru, running about six kilometers east of the ruined
capital. Madhurantaka Vedavaru, named after one of the titles of Rajendra I,
was a source of irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the capital. An
irrigation channel called Anaivettuvan is also mentioned.
"Anaivettuvan" - Anai means irrigation (step
irrigation) vettuvan means labour or engineer. Hence the above sequel is not matching;
more over Hindu Dharam never allows killing elephant. Another possible meaning
of "Anaivettuvan" - Anai means Dam, vettuvan means constructor (labour
or engineer).
There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used
for cultivation and other purposes. The present positions of the existing
temples throw some light on the layout of the city. With the palace as the
centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to
have been erected. Towards the northeast (Isanya) of the palace is the great
temple of Siva. The Siva temple according to Vastu and traditional texts should be in the northeast
of the city or village and should face east. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west.
A number of small tanks and ponds mentioned in
inscriptions and a number of wells supplied drinking water to the residents.
Temple & the City
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, now in the Udayarpalayam taluk
of Ariyalur District, in Tamilnadu, was erected as the capital of the Cholas by
Rajendra I, the son and successor of Rajaraja I, the great Chola who conquered
a large area in South India at the beginning of the 11th century A.D. It
occupies an important place in the history of India.
As the capital of the Cholas from about 1025 A.D. for
about 250 years, the city controlled the affairs of entire south India, from
the Tungabhadra in the north to Ceylon in the south. The great temple of Siva
at this place is next only to the great temple of Tanjore in its monumental nature
and surpasses it in sculptural quality. The city was founded by the eminent
Chola emperor probably to commemorate his victorious march to the Ganges and
reflected his personality throughout the days of its eminence and continues to
do so because of its great temple, though its role as a capital of the south
has been forgotten by its inhabitants. It is now a small village, bounded in
the west by the celebrated Gangaikondan Lake, one of the biggest lakes in south
India, and by the river Vadavaru in the east.
To the south and the north are fields with a few hamlets
bearing names recalling their associations with the greatness of the city. A
highway winding its way through this once great city runs north-south leading
to the Lower Anicut, while another road cuts across the great lake east-west
and connects this village with Jayamkonda chola Puram, another Chola foundation
about six miles to the west. The lofty tower of the great prasada could be seen
from about a distance of six or seven miles. Besides the great temple and other
ancient relics, inscriptions on the temple are our primary source of
information for reconstructing the history of the city.
Copper plate charters issued by Rajendra and his
successors also give valuable information. A few Tamil literary works like the
Thiruvisaippa of Karuvurdevar, the Kalingattup-parani of Jayamkondar, the Muvar
Ula of Ottakkuttar, and the Koyil Olugu furnish some data. The Sanskrit work,
the Vikramankadeva Charita of Bilhana on the exploits of Vikramaditya VI, also
throws some light. Records dealing with the Udaiyarpalaiyam Zamin give some
valuable information about the temple and the city.
City then & now
There is an interesting reference in the Silappadikaram,
a post Sangam classic, to the foundation of Uraiyur as a capital of the Cholas
of the Sangam age. A cock is said to have attacked and chased away an elephant
at Uraiyur. This inspired the Chola king to make Uraiyur his Metropolis, for he
believed that the inhabitants of that place would be heroic and valorous as the
cock. A similar story of a rabbit chasing away a hound is told of the
foundation of Panchalankuruchi, the capital of Virapandya Kattabomman. Who
defied the British in late 18th century A.D.
If these traditions are of any value, they indicate that
a place which inspired a ruler to attain phenomenal success was honoured by
being made capital of the ruler, who cherished sentimental attachment to it.
Only thus can we explain for the foundation of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the
capital of the imperial Cholas from the eleventh century.
Gangaikonda Cholapuram was unheard of even as a village
when Rajendra I came to the Chola throne. Thanjavur had been the chola capital
ever since it had been captured from the Muttarakiya Chieftains by Vijayalaya,
who founded the imperial line of the Chola in the middle of ninth century A. D.
Thanjavur served the interests of the Cholas well. It
was well fortified and adorned with palaces mansions; it was there that Rajaraja
I had built the great temple; it was from there that he had brought for the
first time the entire southern India under one parasol. Yet within few years of
the erection of the great temple and within few years of his passing, his son,
Rajendra shifted his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
Was this because Gangaikonda Cholapuram served strategic
purpose better than Thanjavur (but Thanjavur had better claims with its
fortifications and natural river barriers)? No answer is possible except for a
suggestion that it was probably here that Rajendra resolved to dispatch a
military expedition to the Gangetic plain.
The city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram was probably founded
by Rajendra before his 17th regnal years as it is mentioned in one of his
inscriptions of that year. Judging from the available literature and the
remains we may conclude that it was an extensive city, carefully planned and
laid in accordance with the architectural treatises to suit the needs of a
capital, rajadhani. The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner
and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The villagers point to a
mound running all around the palace as the outer fortification.
Systematic brick robbing has been going on in this
place. It is probable that the outer fortification built of burnt bricks, was
about six to eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space
(the core) being filled with sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are
made of well burnt clay. A fortification at this place called Rajendra Chola
Madil (the fort wall named Rajendra Chola) evidently after the builder is
mentioned in an inscription. This fortification might be identical with this
outer wall. The inner fortification was around the royal palace, probably
identical with the Utpadi vittu madil of the inscriptions.
The royal palace also was built of burnt brick. The
ceilings were covered with flat tiles of small size, laid in a number of
courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood,
supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day. Iron
nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site.
In the reign of Virarajendra, Rajendra's third son, the
palace at Gangaikonda Cholapuram is referred to as Chola-Keralan Thirumaligai
(Chola Keralan palace) evidently after one of the titles of Rajendra I. The
same inscription mentions a few parts of the palace as adibhumi (the ground
floor), Kilaisopana (the eastern portico), and a seat named Mavali Vanadhirajan.
Evidently the palace was multistoried. In an inscription dated in the 49th year
of Kulottunga (1119 A.D.) reference is made to Gangaikonda chola Mallikai at
this place. It is likely that there were more than one royal building each
having its own name.
Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the
names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs. The entry ways
named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the Vembugudi gate, evidently the south
gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that directions are
mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and
Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali. Other streets mentioned
in epigraphs are the ten streets (Pattu teru), the gateway lane (Thiruvasal
Narasam) and the Suddhamali lane.
Probably in the reign of Kulottunga, the fortifications
were renewed and the city underwent some alteration and additions. An epigraph
refers to the fort wall of Kulottunga Chola (Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil). The
inscription also refers to the highways, Kulottunga Cholan Thirumadil peruvali,
Vilangudaiyan Peruvali and Kulaiyanai pona Peruvali (the highway through which
a short elephant passed by). The strengthening of the fortification and
additions to the city in the reign of Kulottunga I were probably necessitated
by the uprising which led to the murder of Chola king Adhirajendra,
Kulottunga's predecessor.
The epigraphs also refer to the Madhurantaka Vadavaru,
now called the Vadavaru, running about three miles east of the ruined capital. Madhurantaka
Vedavaru evidently named after one of the titles of Rajendra I, was a source of
irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the capital. An irrigation
channel called Anaivettuvan (destroyer of elephants) Kal is also mentioned.
There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used
for cultivation and other purposes. The present positions of the existing
temples throw some light on the layout of the city. With the palace as the
centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to
have been erected. Towards the north-east (Isanya) of the palace is the great
temple of Siva. The Siva temple according to Vastu and Agamic texts should be
in the north-east of the city or village and should face east. Till recent
times, the local people say an image of Vishnu with his consorts was in situ to
the west of the palace. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west. To the
south-east of the palace is a temple dedicated to Aiyanar (Sastra). Obviously
there should have existed other temples as prescribed in traditional treatises.
A few villages lying mostly to the east of the temple
bear names that recall their association with the original layout of the city.
Thus Vira Cholapuram, Kollapuram, Meykavalputhur, Vanavanallur, Virabhogha
etc., are of interest.
A number of small tanks and ponds mentioned in
inscriptions and retained in tradition, supplied drinking water to the
residents, besides a number of wells. Most of the Chola kings who succeeded
Rajendra were crowned here. They retained it as their capital, reoriented and
trained the efficient Chola army. This capital of the most powerful empire in
Asia at one time is now absolutely desolate only the temple of Gangaikonda
chola survives. To those who know of the brilliant history of the Chola Empire
it is a tragedy.
What caused the destruction of this city? The Pandyas,
who put an end to the Chola Empire late in the 13th century, avenging their
earlier defeats at the hands of the Cholas, should have razed the city to the
ground, a misfortune that befell on capitals in early times. It should have
remained a heap of brick debris, the inhabitants of the nearby villages
pilfering the bricks for their constructions. The people have also dug
systematically deep into the ground and extracted cartloads of ancient bricks,
at four annas per cartload. The residents boast that within a radius of five
miles, no brick kiln is needed.