Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Uthiramerur, Kanchipuram –
Inscriptions on Kudavolai System
Kudavolai system:
The
inscriptions of the temple indicate that the villagers requested the rulers to
allow them to choose their own representatives. Parantaka Chola readily acceded
to their demand and instituted the Kudavolai system (ballot) of democratically
electing the village representatives. The rules of electing and the eligibility
of the representatives and voters are described in detail in the inscriptions.
The
villagers assembled at a common place and wrote the name of their preferred
representative in a palm leaf and put it in a pot. Kudam in Tamil is pot and volai means the palm leaf,
leading to the name of Kudavolai. Only people in pilgrimage or senescence were
exempt from voting. The eligibility of the candidates was prescribed with
minimum age, educational qualifications and property.
There
were strictures for the candidates should have built their house in their own
property, should not be part of any other committee and be between 35 and 70
years of age. The voters had the right to call back their candidate for failing
their duties. The inscriptions also specified strict punishments for the
corrupt like disallowing their next seven generations to contest if found
guilty. The institution was dismembered along with the ending of Chola regime
during the 13th century. Rajiv
Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India was inspired by the system after paying a visit to
the temple and insisted on improving Panchayat
Raj, India's system of local bodies in villages.
Village administration:
The
temple inscriptions of Uthiramerur are notable for their historical
descriptions of the rural self-governance. They indicate that Uthiramerur had two village
assemblies: Sabha and Ur. The Sabha an
exclusively Brahmin (priestly class)
assembly, while the Ur was made up of people belonging to all the classes.
The
earliest surviving inscriptions from Uthiramerur date to the reign of the
Pallava king Dantivarman (795-846 CE). These inscriptions indicate that the
Sabha was already a well-established and mature institution by this time.
It managed land sales and an endowment fund for dredging a tank. It also assigned some duties to
the Ur for managing the land deserted by tenants who could not afford
to pay the taxes.
A later
inscription, from the reign of Dantivarman's successor Nandivarman
III (846-869), describes the qualifications and tenure
of archaka (priest) in a local temple. According to these
early inscriptions, the Sabha assembled in the hall of the local temple.
The meetings were summoned through beating
of the drums. The inscriptions also
contain several references to variyars, the executive officers subordinate
to the Sabha.
Two
later inscriptions of the Chola king Parantaka
I (907–955) indicate the evolution of the
administrative system. Instead of variyars (who were individuals), the
executive powers were given to committees called variyams. Each variyam constituted
6 to 12 members, depending on the importance of its functions. The first
inscription, dated to 919 CE, describes the rules for electing the committee
members. The second inscription, dated to 921 CE, describes some amendments to
these rules to make them more practical. According to the 921 CE inscription,
the village had 30 kudumbus or wards, from which the members of following
committees were selected annually.
An
inscription, dated around 920 CE in the reign of Parantaka Chola from Uthiramerur,
near Chennai (in Tamilnadu) is an outstanding document in the history of India.
It is a veritable classical written constitution of the village assembly that
functioned one thousand years ago. It gives astonishing details about the
constitution of wards, the qualifications of candidates standing for election,
the disqualifications, the mode of election, the constitution of committees
with elected members, the functions of the various committees and the power to
remove the wrong door etc.
The
village assembly of Uthiramerur met and drafted the Constitution for election.
The salient features of the Constitution for election are as follows;
The
village was divided into 30 wards. One representative was to be elected for
each ward. Specific qualifications were prescribed for those who stood for
election. The essential qualifications were, age limit, possession of minimum
immovable property and minimum educational qualification.
The one
who was to be elected should be above 35 years of age and below 70. This
minimum age limit was considered essential because those who were entrusted
with Public administration should have attained maturity by a certain measure
of experience gained through the age. The upper age limit was prescribed, so
that the elected person does not perpetuate himself in power even after
attaining the age of 85 or 90 or perhaps even till death, by keeping themselves
in power for such ripe age, they would create a sense of frustration in the
younger generation and there would be no smooth or gradual change over.
The minimum
property qualification was prescribed, because, the members elected to the
assembly will be administering public property and therefore ought to have had
some experience in administering property and in the event of loss, should have
security by way of immovable property for recovery. It is interesting to see
that the rule prescribed, that he should possess 1/2 of a Veli of tax paying
land (not tax-free holding). Another interesting stipulation was that he should
possess a built house in his own site (not in public land like Porambokku).
A
minimum educational qualification was prescribed, so that the elected member
would have acquired the basic discipline, in understanding and drafting
suitable legislation.
Besides
these, a candidate ought to be an honest man and acquired his property through
honest means (and not one who took shelter under legal intricacies and appeared
honest). Another point of interest is that the candidate was known for his
administrative ability (Kaaryattil nipunar).
The
disqualifications detailed are far more severe and will come as an eye opener
to the students of constitutional history. The disqualifications were far more
severe and is illustrative of the great care, the Chola Society attached to
moral values and conduct in public life. Among the disqualifications listed,
the one that tops the list relates to the rendering of public accounts.
1) One,
having been elected to one of the public committees, did not render proper
accounts at the end of a year were disqualified from standing for the election throughout
his life.
2) Any
elected member who accepted bribe was also permanently debarred from standing
for elections.
3) One
who misappropriated any property was also disqualified.
4) One
who acted against the interest of the society (here the village) and was a
potential danger to the peaceful life of the people (graama Kantaka) was also
debarred from election.
5) One
who was found guilty of incest and other sins had also no place in the village
assembly.
6) It
was not only the individual who was guilty of anyone of the above acts, but all
his relations in the father’s family, the mother's family and his wife's family
were permanently debarred.
7) Even
those who administered purifactory rites to any one of the sinners were also
debarred.
Having
detailed the disqualifications, the record gives the mode of election.
The
names of all those who had the required qualifications and were free from
disqualifications in each ward were to be written on separate leaves that were
fastened as bundles. On an appointed day all the members of the village were to
assemble at the village assembly hall. All the village elders present in the
village on that day were to be seated on a raised platform and the election
held for one ward after another.
There
were for each ward, separate pots in which the bundle of leaves were to be
placed. An illiterate young boy was to be requested to come to the platform and
pull out one leave from each pot and hand it over to the village Scribe (madhyastha).
The village madhyastha was to stand up and before receiving the leaf, show his
opened palm to all the assembled villagers (to indicate that he had not hidden
illegally any leaves with the name of his favourite) and then receive the leaf
from the boy, and read loudly the name found on it.
He
should then pass it on to the elders seated on the platform. Each elder should
also verify the name on the leaf and read aloud. The person whose name was
found on the leaf was deemed to have been elected. Similarly all the members
will be elected. Among the thirty members thus elected, those who were old,
highly learned, and who have served earlier on Tank Committee or agricultural
committee would be elected as members of the annual supervision committee which
is the most vital committee. Among the rest, the young and energetic, from whom
physical exertion was expected, would be chosen for the tank committee and
agricultural committee.
It was
the duty of the tank committee to see that all water sources in the village
were kept in good condition and desilted at appropriate times. Similarly the
duties for each committee were defined. The members thus elected will serve for
one full year. Once a person serves in any of the committee, he is not eligible
for three more years to stand for election. When one, who is on the Committee
is found guilty of any offense he shall be removed, at once.
Having
detailed the mode of election as found in the inscribed record of 10th century,
it is now necessary to understand the positive aspects of this system. This is
a simple and most inexpensive system of election, conceived of in ancient
times. The impersonal mode of election eliminated hatred and bickering between
one candidate and the other. All the able efficient and duly qualified could
offer themselves as candidates and given chance would participate in the
affairs. Since the term of office was restricted to one term only and as one
who served for one term was debarred for three years, other members of the
village community got equal opportunity and there was no room for any
frustration.
Every
individual of the village was sure of an opportunity atleast once to get
elected in about 35 years of his active life. The transitions from one
generation to another, was not only be smooth but also imperceptible. The age
restriction ensured certain maturity of thought and the terminal age assured
that the aged should leave the affairs in the hands of the active generation.
The
emphasis on good conduct and moral values, known to every member of the
community, ensured honest men handling public life. That the faltering men
would be thrown out at any stage acted as a brake on mischievous elements,
continuing or grabbing power. The idea of the Cholas is that every citizen
should have a full independent life, as mentioned in their preamble to their
charters, assumes meaning in this context.
The
Cholas primarily addressed themselves to organize such duly elected village
assemblies throughout their kingdom. As a result of such village assemblies
functioning throughout the Chola territory, the society reached perfection in
every walk of life. The rich people came forward in large numbers to endow
wealth and property in the hands of the village assemblies, for they were
assured that these endowments would be properly utilized. The ultimate result
was art, architecture, literature and public life flourished and reached their
height and the age was rightly described as the golden age of the Cholas.
This
system of grass root democracy, as judged from the result proved itself to be
the most dynamic system that has functioned in Tamilnadu efficiently for well
over 400 years from about 900 A.D. Many changes have taken place in the lives
of the people, especially due to scientific discoveries in recent periods,
necessitating a constant readjustment. However one of the new elements that have
taken root in the village life is the introduction political, party system,
which keeps various sections of the village community in a state of tension,
dividing their loyalties.
The age,
security and qualifications for elections prescribed in ancient times have been
whittled down in modern times with the result the function of village
democracies have lost their vitality. One more point that needs notice is
whether the village assemblies had power to amend the constitution. Incidentally
the very same epigraph from Uthiramerur throws valuable light on this point.
The same village assembly met earlier in the 12th year of the same king
Parantaka (918 A.D.) drafted a constitution, but it was brief and at places
seems to have been vague, so two years later the Constitution now under study
was drafted. A study of the second one show that the later one is detailed,
clear and at places shows amendments to the first one.
This
clearly demonstrates that there was enough freedom for the ancient Tamil villages,
to frame suitable constitutions for elections to village assemblies, and that
such constitutions were written documents, drafted clause by clause with
meticulous care, and when necessity arose, were also amended to give fuller
participation to all members and express themselves in the affairs of the
administration.
Translation of the Original Uthiramerur Inscription:
King:
King Parakesarivarman, who conquered Madurai. Date: On the sixteenth day of the
fourteenth year. Royal order: Whereas a royal letter of His Majesty, our lord,
the glorious Viranarayana, the illustrious Parantakadeva, the prosperous Parakesarivarman,
was received and was shown to us, The village: We, the members of the assembly
of Uttarameru-caturvedimangalam in its own sub-division in Kaliyurkottam,
Officer present: Karanjai Kondaya-Kramavitta bhattan alias Somasiperuman of
Srivanga-nagar in Purangarambai-nadu, a district of the Chola country, Settlement:
sitting with us and convening the committee in accordance with the royal
command, made a settlement as follows according to the terms of the royal
letter for choosing once every year from this year forward, members for the
"Annual Committee", 'Garden Committee", and "Tank
Committee", Wards: There shall be thirty wards, Qualifications: in these
thirty wards, those that live in each ward shall assemble and shall choose for
"pot-tickets" (Kudav-Olai) anyone possessing the following
qualifications: (a) "He must own more than a quarter veli of tax-paying
land; (b) He must live in a house built on his own site; (c) His age must be
below 70 and above 35; (d) He must know the Mantra-brahmana i.e., he must know
it by teaching others; (e) "Even if one owns only one-eighth veli of land,
he should have his name written on the pot-ticket to be put into the pot, in
case he has learnt one Veda and one of the four bhasyas by explaining it to
others.
Among
those possessing the foregoing qualifications: (f) only such as are well
conversant with administration and are virtuous shall be taken and (g) one who possesses
honest earnings, whose mind is pure and who have not been on any of the
committees for the last three years shall also be chosen.
Disqualifications:
(a) One who has been on any of the committees but has not submitted his
accounts, and all his relations, specified below, shall not have their names
written on the pot-tickets and put in the pot; (b) The sons of the younger and
elder sisters of his mother, (c) The sons of his paternal aunt and maternal
uncle, (d) The uterine brother of his mother, (e) The uterine brother of his
father, (f) His uterine brother, (g) His father-in-law, (h) The uterine brother
of his wife (i) The husband of his uterine sister, (j) The sons of his uterine
sister, (k) The son-in-law, who has married his daughter, (l) His father, (m)
His son; (n) One against whom incest (agamyagamana) or the first four of the
five great sins are recorded, (o) All his relations above specified shall not
have their names written on the pot-tickets and put into the pot; (p) One who
is fool-hardy; (q) One who has stolen the property of another; (r) One who has
taken forbidden dishes of any kind and who has become pure by performing
expiation; (s) One who has committed sins and has become pure by performing
expiatory ceremonies; (t) One who is guilty of incest and has become pure by
performing expiatory ceremonies. (u) All these thus specified shall not to the
end of their-lives, have their names written on the pot-ticket to be put into
the pot for any of the committees.
Mode of
Election: Excluding all these, thus specified, names shall be written for
pot-tickets in the thirty wards and each of the wards in these twelve streets
of Uttaramerur shall prepare a separate covering ticket for each of the thirty
wards bundled separately. These packets shall be put into a pot. When the
pot-tickets have to be drawn, a full meeting of the Great Assembly, including
the young and old members, shall be convened.
All the
temple priests, (Numbimar) who happen to be in the village on that day, shall,
without any exception whatever, be caused to be seated in the inner hall, where
the great assembly meets. In the midst of the temple priests, one of them, who
happens to be the eldest, shall stand up and lift that pot, looking up-wards so
as to be seen by all people. One ward, i.e., the packet representing it, shall
be taken out by any young boy standing close, who does not know what is inside,
and shall be transferred to another empty pot and shaken. From this pot one
ticket shall be drawn by the young boy and made over to the arbitrator
(madhyastha).
While
taking charge of the ticket thus given to him, the arbitrator shall receive it
on the palm of his hand with the five fingers open. He shall read out the name
in the ticket thus received. The ticket read by him shall also be read out by
all the priests present in the inner hall. The name thus read out shall be put
down (and accepted). Similarly one man shall be chosen for each of the thirty
wards.
Constitution of the Committee:
Of the
thirty men thus chosen, those who had previously been on the Garden committee
and on the Tank committee, those who are advanced in learning, and those who
are advanced in age shall be chosen for the Annual Committee. Of the rest,
twelve shall be taken for the Garden committee and the remaining six shall form
the Tank committee. These last two committees shall be chosen by showing the
Karai.
Duration of the Committee:
The
great men of these three committees thus chosen from them shall hold office for
full three hundred and sixty days and then retire.
Removal of Persons Found Guilty:
When one
who is on the committee is found guilty of any offence, he shall be removed at
once: for appointing the committees after these have retired, the members of
the Committee "for Supervision of Justice" in the twelve streets of
Uttaramerur shall convene an assembly kuri, with the help of the Arbitrator.
The committees shall be appointed by drawing pot-tickets according to this
order of settlement.
Pancavara and Gold Committees:
For the
Pancavara committee and the Gold committee, names shall be written for
pot-tickets in the thirty wards. Thirty packets with covering tickets shall be
deposited in a pot and thirty pot-tickets shall be drawn as previously
described.
From
these thirty tickets chosen 24 shall be for the Gold committee and the
remaining six for the Pancavara committee. When drawing pot-tickets for these
two committee next year, the wards which have been already represented during
the year in question on these committees shall be excluded and the reduction
made from the remaining wards by drawing the Karai. One who has ridden on an ass
and one who has committed forgery shall not have his name written on the
pot-ticket to be put into the pot.
Qualification of the Accountant:
Any
Arbitrator who possesses honest earnings shall write the accounts of the
village. No accountant shall be appointed to that office again before he
submits his accounts for the period during which he was in office to the great
men of the big committee and is declared to have been honest. The accounts
which one has been writing, he shall submit himself and no other accountant
shall be chosen to close his accounts.
King's
order: Thus, from this year onwards, as long as the moon and the sun endure,
committees shall always be appointed by pot-tickets alone. To this effect was
the royal letter received and shown to us, graciously issued by Lord of lords,
the emperor, one who is fond of learned men, the wrestler with elephants, the
crest jewel of heroes, whose acts i.e., gifts, resemble those of the celestial
tree, the glorious Parakesarivarman.
Officer
present: At the royal command, Karanjai Kondaya Kramavitta bhattan alias
Somasiperuman of Srivanga-nagar in Purangarambai-nadu, a district of the Chola
country, sat, with us and thus caused this settlement to be made.
Villager's
decision: We, the members of the assembly of Uttaramerur Chaturvedimangalam,
made this settlement for the prosperity of our village in order that wicked men
may perish and the rest may prosper.
The
scribe: At the order of the great men, sitting in the assembly, I, the
Arbitrator Kalarip pottan Sivakkuri Rajamallamangalapriyan, thus wrote this
settlement.
